عصر الاستكشاف

The Map of Juan de la Cosa of 1500, the earliest undisputed representation of the Americas.
Naval Museum of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.

The Cantino planisphere of 1502, the earliest surviving chart showing the explorations of Columbus to Central America, Corte-Real to Newfoundland, Gama to India and Cabral to Brazil. The Tordesillas line is depicted at left.
Biblioteca Estense, Modena, Italy.

عصر الاستكشاف هوالفترة من أوائل القرن الخامس عشر والمستمرة حتى أوائل القرن السابع عشر، قامت السفن الأوروبية خلالها بالسفر حول العالم للبحث عن طرق تجارية جديدة وعن شركاء تجارة جدد لتغذية الرأسمالية السريعة النموفي أوروبا. وأثناء بحثهم عثروا صدفة على أراضٍ كانت مجهولة بالنسبة إليهم. من أشهر المستكشفين في ذلك الوقت: كرستوفر كولومبوس، ڤاسكودا گاما، وفرديناند ماجلان.

شكل التقدم التقني والفكري في عصر النهضة البذرة التي بدأت عصر الاستكشاف. وقد ضم هذا التقدم علوما مختلفة كفهم الخرائط والملاحة والتطورات في بناء السفن والتي كان أهمها اختراع السفن الكبيرة والتي جمعت التصميم العربي والأوروبي للسفن مما جعل الإبحار خارج البحر المتوسط آمنا. يضاف إلى ذلك رغبة الكثير في أوروبا لإيجاد طريق بديل للذهاب إلى آسيا عن طريق الغرب.

عرض عام

Map with the main travels of the Age of Discovery. See details in expandable table:

Major discoveries
Major discovery/ Destination	Main explorer	السنة	Funding by
Congo River	Diogo Cão	1482	John II of Portugal
Cape of Good Hope Indian Ocean	Dias	1488	John II of Portugal
West Indies	Columbus	1492	Ferdinand and Isabella
India	Vasco da Gama	1498	Manuel I
Brazil	Cabral	1500	Manuel I
Spice Islands Australasia (Western Pacific Ocean)	Albuquerque, Abreu and Serrão	1512	Manuel I
Pacific Ocean	Vasco Balboa	1513	Ferdinand II of Aragon
Strait of Magellan	Magellan	1520	Charles I of Spain
Circumnavigation	Magellan and Elcano	1522	Charles I of Spain
Australia	Willem Janszoon	1606	India Company
New Zealand	Abel Tasman	1642	India Company
Antarctica	James Cook	1773	George III
Hawaii	James Cook	1778	George III

التكنولوجيا: تصميم السفن والبوصلة

A Caravel with two lateen sail rigs and a headsail. Caravels were invented by Portuguese, they had more manoeuvrability and were essential to the Age of Discovery.

Technological advancements that were important to the Age of Exploration were the adoption of the magnetic compass and advances in ship design.

الجغرافيا والخرائط

Pintle-and-gudgeon stern-post rudder of the Hanseatic league flagship Adler von Lübeck (1567–1581).

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a document dating from 40–60 AD, describes a newly discovered route through the Red Sea to India, with descriptions of the markets in towns around Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, including along the eastern coast of Africa, which states "for beyond these places the unexplored ocean curves around toward the west, and running along by the regions to the south of Aethiopia and Libya and Africa, it mingles with the western sea (possible reference to the Atlantic Ocean)". European medieval knowledge about Asia beyond the reach of the Byzantine Empire was sourced in partial reports, often obscured by legends, dating back from the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great and his successors.

Another source was the Radhanite Jewish trade networks of merchants established as go-betweens between Europe and the Muslim world during the time of the Crusader states.

Ptolemy's world map (2nd century) in a 15th-century reconstruction by Nicolaus Germanus.

In 1154, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi created a description of the world and a world map, the Tabula Rogeriana, at the court of King Roger II of Sicily, but still Africa was only partially known to either Christians, Genoese and Venetians, or the Arab seamen, and its southern extent unknown. There were reports of great African Sahara, but the factual knowledge was limited for the Europeans to the Mediterranean coasts and little else since the Arab blockade of North Africa precluded exploration inland. Knowledge about the Atlantic African coast was fragmented and derived mainly from old Greek and Roman maps based on Carthaginian knowledge, including the time of Roman exploration of Mauritania. The Red Sea was barely known and only trade links with the Maritime republics, the Republic of Venice especially, fostered collection of accurate maritime knowledge.

السفر في القرون الوسطى (1241–1438)

The Silk Road and spice trade routes later blocked by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 spurring exploration to find alternative sea routes

Marco Polo travels (1271–1295)

البعثات الصينية (1405–1433)

"Mao Kun map", believed to be based on Zheng He's travels, showing sailing directions between ports of SE Asia and as far as Malindi, in Wu Bei Zhi (1628)

المحيط الأطلسي (1419–1507)

Genoese (red) and Venetian (green) maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean and Black Sea

الاستكشاف حسب البلد

سانتا مارية

مهد لعصر الاستكشاف سلسلة من الحملات الأوروبية التي تعدت أراضي أوراسيا عن طريق البر في أواخر العصور الوسطى. فبينما شكل المغول خطرا يهدد أوروبا بالنهب والدمار، فقد أدت هذه الظروف إلى توحد أغلب آسيا وأوروبا في إنشاء طرق تجارية وخطوط تواصل امتدت من الشرق الأوسط وحتى الصين. وقد استغل بعض الأوروبين الفرصة للسفر والاستكشاف شرقا، وكان غالبيتهم العظمى من الإيطاليين نظرا لكونهم طرق التجارة بين أوروبا والشرق الأوسط خاضعة تحت سيطرة التجارة من المدن الإيطالية. وقد كان قرب هؤلاء من ما يعهد اليوم ببلاد الشام الدور الكبير في خلق الفضول والاهتمام التجاري لما يكمن خلف هذه الحدود. وكذلك، فقد أطلق البابا حملات لأهداف دينية.

نهاية عصر الاستكشاف

ينطق بأن عصر الاستكشاف انتهى في بداية القرن السابع عشر، في الوقت الذي كان باستطاع السفن الأوروبية حتى تبحر لأي مكان في الكوكب. ولكن الاستكشاف لم ينتهِ، فلم يتم اكتشاف المحيط المتجمد الشمالي والجنوبي إلا فالقرن التاسع عشر.

السقط العالمي

New World crops. Clockwise from top left: 1. Corn (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (genus Vanilla, esp. Vanilla planifolia) 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)

Jesuit scholars collaborated extensively with Chinese astronomers, introducing Copernican principles. Top: Matteo Ricci, Adam Schaal and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–1688); Bottom: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), Colao or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu

السقط الاقتصادي على أوروپا



المواضيع
العمارة الرقص الأدب الموسيقى الرسم الفلسفة الفهم التكنولوجيا الحرب
المناطق
إنگلترة فرنسا ألمانيا إيطاليا هولندا شمال اوروبا پولندا إسپانيا

World map from Johannes Kepler's Rudolphine Tables (1627), incorporating many of the new discoveries.

Delftware depicting Chinese scenes, 18th century. Ernest Cognacq Museum

Jan Davidsz. de Heem, detail of silverware from "A Richly Laid Table with Parrots", c. 1650

انظر أيضاً

عصر الشراع
Atlantic slave trade
Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
Chinese maritime exploration
Chronology of European exploration of Asia
Columbian Exchange
Exploration
European exploration of Australia
History of navigation
L'Anse aux Meadows
List of explorations
Major explorations after the Age of Discovery
Maritime history
Portuguese inventions
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Scramble for Africa
Timeline of European exploration
Winds in the Age of Sail

المراجع

^ Arnold 2002, p. xi.
^ Houben, 2002, pp. 102–04.
^ Harley & Woodward, 1992, pp. 156–61.
^ Abu-Lughod 1991, p. 121.

ببليوگرافيا

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وصلات خارجية

The Fortnightly Review.uk: "The Faustian Impulse and European Exploration"
Zinn Education Project.org: "Discover Columbus: Re-reading the Past" – Rethinking Schools 6-page lesson plan for high school students.